AP Psychology Flashcards: Developmental Psychology, Piaget, Erikson, Attachment Theory

Jean Piaget proposed four stages. The sensorimotor stage from birth to about age two, where infants learn through senses and motor actions and develop object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight. The preoperational stage from two to seven, where children develop language and symbolic thinking but lack conservation and are egocentric. The concrete operational stage from seven to eleven, where children master conservation, classification, and logical thinking about concrete events.

Erik Erikson proposed eight stages spanning the entire lifespan. Trust versus mistrust in infancy develops through consistent caregiving. Autonomy versus shame and doubt in toddlerhood develops through exploration and choice. Initiative versus guilt in early childhood develops through purposeful play. Industry versus inferiority in middle childhood develops through mastery and achievement. Identity versus role confusion in adolescence develops through self-exploration. Intimacy versus isolation in young adulthood develops through close relationships.

Attachment theory, developed by John Bowlby, proposes that infants form emotional bonds with caregivers that influence social and emotional development throughout life. Mary Ainsworth tested attachment styles using the Strange Situation procedure, observing infant reactions to caregiver separation and reunion. Secure attachment, seen in about 60 percent of infants, shows distress at separation and comfort upon reunion. Anxious-ambivalent attachment shows intense distress and difficulty being comforted. Avoidant attachment shows little distress and ignores the caregiver upon return.

Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. It is a key milestone in Piaget's sensorimotor stage. Before developing object permanence, infants act as if an object that disappears from view no longer exists, showing no attempt to search for it. Object permanence typically begins developing around eight months of age and is fully established by about eighteen to twenty-four months. Piaget tested it by hiding toys under blankets and observing whether infants searched for them.

Assimilation is the process of incorporating new experiences into existing mental frameworks, called schemas, without changing them. A child who calls all four-legged animals "doggy" is assimilating new animals into their existing dog schema. Accommodation is the process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate experiences that do not fit. When the child learns that a cat is different from a dog, they accommodate by creating a separate cat schema.

Lawrence Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral development, each with two stages. The preconventional level focuses on self-interest: stage one avoids punishment and stage two seeks personal reward. The conventional level focuses on social rules: stage three seeks social approval from others and stage four upholds law and order for society's sake. The postconventional level focuses on universal ethical principles: stage five recognizes that laws are social contracts that can be changed, and stage six follows abstract principles of justice even when they conflict with laws.

Critical periods are windows during prenatal development when specific organs and systems are most vulnerable to disruption from teratogens, which are harmful agents like alcohol, drugs, infections, and radiation. The embryonic period from weeks three through eight is the most critical because major organs and body structures are forming. Alcohol exposure during this time can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Rubella infection in the first trimester can cause heart defects, deafness, and intellectual disability.