AP Psychology Flashcards: Learning, Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Observational

Classical conditioning is a form of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a response, so that the neutral stimulus alone eventually triggers the response. Ivan Pavlov discovered it while studying digestion in dogs. He noticed that dogs began salivating at the sight of the lab assistant who brought food, not just at the food itself. By repeatedly pairing a bell with food, the bell alone eventually caused salivation.

Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by adding a desirable stimulus after the behavior occurs. For example, giving a child praise or candy for completing homework increases the likelihood of doing homework again. Negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs. For example, taking an aspirin removes a headache, making you more likely to take aspirin in the future. Both reinforcement types increase the target behavior. The key distinction is adding something pleasant versus removing something unpleasant.

Reinforcement, whether positive or negative, always increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment always decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus to reduce behavior, such as giving a speeding ticket. Negative punishment removes a desirable stimulus to reduce behavior, such as taking away a teenager's phone privileges. Research shows that punishment is less effective than reinforcement for long-term behavior change because it suppresses behavior without teaching an alternative.

Operant conditioning is a form of learning where behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences. B.F. Skinner developed this approach, building on Edward Thorndike's law of effect which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated. Skinner used operant chambers, called Skinner boxes, to study how animals learn to press levers or peck keys for food rewards. The key principle is that organisms operate on their environment and learn from the results.

Observational learning, also called social learning or modeling, is learning by watching and imitating others without direct reinforcement. Albert Bandura demonstrated this in his 1961 Bobo doll experiment, where children who watched an adult aggressively hit an inflatable Bobo doll were significantly more likely to imitate that aggressive behavior when given the opportunity compared to children who watched a non-aggressive adult. This showed that learning occurs through observation alone, without the learner being directly reinforced.

Reinforcement schedules determine how often a behavior is reinforced. Continuous reinforcement rewards every correct response, producing fast learning but rapid extinction when reinforcement stops. Partial reinforcement follows four patterns: fixed-ratio reinforces after a set number of responses, producing high steady rates; variable-ratio reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses, producing the highest and most consistent rate, like slot machines; fixed-interval reinforces the first response after a set time period, producing increased responding near the deadline; and varia

Extinction is the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, so the bell is rung many times without food until the dog stops salivating. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, so a rat stops pressing a lever when it no longer delivers food.

Generalization occurs when an organism responds to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus. In Pavlov's experiment, a dog conditioned to salivate to a specific bell tone might also salivate to similar tones. In Little Albert's experiment, a child conditioned to fear a white rat also feared other white furry objects. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and respond only to the specific conditioned stimulus. ---